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Viral receptors are the cell surface proteins that are hijacked by viruses to initialize their infections. Viral receptors are subject to two conflicting directional forces, namely negative selection due to functional constraints and positive selection due to host-virus arms races. It remains largely obscure whether negative pleiotropy limits the rate of adaptation in viral receptors. Here, we perform evolutionary analyses of 96 viral receptor genes in primates, and find that 41 out of 96 viral receptors experienced adaptive evolution. Many positively selected residues in viral receptors are located at the virus-receptor interfaces. Compared with control proteins, viral receptors exhibit significantly elevated rate of adaptation. Further analyses of genetic polymorphisms in human populations reveal signals of positive selection and balancing selection for 53 and 5 viral receptors, respectively. Moreover, we find that 49 viral receptors experienced different selection pressures in different human populations, nes in primates. We also found signals of past natural selection for 58 viral receptors in human populations. Interestingly, 49 viral receptors experienced different selection pressures in different human populations, indicating that viruses might represent an important driver of local adaptation in humans. Our results suggest that host-virus arms races drive accelerated adaptive evolution in viral receptors.Humoral immune protection against influenza virus infection is mediated largely by antibodies against hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), the two major glycoproteins on the virus surface. While influenza virus vaccination efforts have focused mainly on the HA, NA-based immunity has been shown to reduce disease severity and provide heterologous protection. Current seasonal vaccines do not elicit strong anti-NA responses-in part due to the immunodominance of the HA protein. Here, we demonstrate that by swapping the 5' and 3' terminal packaging signals of the HA and NA genomic segments, which contain the RNA promoters, we are able to rescue influenza viruses that express more NA and less HA. Vaccination with formalin-inactivated, "rewired" viruses significantly enhances the anti-NA antibody response compared to vaccination with unmodified viruses. Passive transfer of sera from mice immunized with rewired virus vaccines shows better protection against influenza virus challenge. Our results provide evidence that the immunodominance of HA stems in part from its abundance on the viral surface, and that rewiring viral packaging signals-thereby increasing the NA content on viral particles-is a viable strategy for improving the immunogenicity of NA in an influenza virus vaccine.IMPORTANCE Influenza virus infections are a major source of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Increasing evidence highlights neuraminidase as a potential vaccination target. This report demonstrates the efficacy of rewiring influenza virus packaging signals for creating vaccines with more neuraminidase content which provide better NA-based protection.Several serine and threonine residues of the papilloma virus early E2 protein have been found to be phosphorylated. By contrast, only one E2 tyrosine phosphorylation site in BPV-1 (tyrosine 102) and one HPV-16/31 (tyrosine 138) site have been characterized. Between BPV-1 and HPV-31 E2, 8 of the 11 tyrosines are conserved in the N-terminal domain, suggesting that phosphorylation of tyrosines has an essential role in E2 biology. In this paper we examine the effect of Y102 phosphorylation on HPV-31 E2 biology.Y102 proteins mutated either to the potential phospho-mimetic glutamic acid (Y102E) or to the non-phosphorylated homologue phenylalanine (Y102F) remain nuclear; however, Y102E is more associated with the nuclear matrix fraction. This is consistent with the inability of Y102E to bind TopBP1. Both BPV-1 and HPV-31 Y102E are similar in that neither bind the C-terminus of Brd4, but in all other aspects, the mutant behaves differently between the two families of papillomaviruses. BPV-1 Y102E was unable to bind E1 and did not replicate in a transient in-vitro assay, while HPV-31 Y102E binds E1 and replicated albeit at lower levels than wild type. To examine effect of E2 mutations under more native-like infection conditions, a neomycin selectable marker was inserted into L1/L2 of HPV-31 genome, creating HPV-31neo. This genome was maintained in every cell line tested for at least 50 days post-transfection/infection. Y102E in both transfection and infection conditions was unable to maintain high episome copy numbers in epithelial cell lines.IMPORTANCE Post-translational modifications by phosphorylation can change protein activities, binding partners, or localization. Tyrosine 102 is conserved between delta papillomavirus BPV-1 and alpha papillomavirus HPV-31 E2. check details We characterized mutations of HPV-31 E2 for interactions with relevant cellular binding partners and replication in the context of the viral genome.Ebola virus (EBOV) inclusion bodies (IBs) are cytoplasmic sites of nucleocapsid formation and RNA replication, housing key steps in the virus life cycle that warrant further investigation. During infection IBs display dynamic properties regarding their size and location. Also, the contents of IBs must transition prior to further viral maturation, assembly and release, implying additional steps in IB function. Interestingly, expression of the viral nucleoprotein (NP) alone is sufficient for generation of IBs, indicating that it plays an important role in IB formation during infection. In addition to NP, other components of the nucleocapsid localize to IBs, including VP35, VP24, VP30 and the RNA polymerase L. Previously we defined and solved the crystal structure of the C-terminal domain of NP (NP-Ct), but its role in virus replication remained unclear. Here we show that NP-Ct is necessary for IB formation when NP is expressed alone. Interestingly, we find that NP-Ct is also required for production of infectiouormation is the nucleoprotein, NP, which also is important in RNA encapsidation and synthesis. In this study, we have identified two domains of NP that control inclusion body formation. One of these, the central domain (CD), interacts with viral protein VP35 to control both inclusion body formation and RNA synthesis. The other is the NP C-terminal domain (NP-Ct), whose function has not previously been reported. These findings contribute to a model in which NP and its interactions with VP35 link the establishment of IBs to the synthesis of viral RNA.